Harvard Professor Led Experiments

A Harvard Medical School psychiatry professor conducted radiation experiments on scores of retarded students at the Fernald School in the 1940s and 1950s, documents show.

Clemens E. Benda, who was a faculty member at the Medical School until at least 1964, served as the medical director at the school for the retarded and oversaw the experiments, according to Benda's published study and Medical School records.

In the experiments, the retarded students were fed radioactive milk with their breakfast cereal. The studies, sponsored by the Quaker Oats Co., were designed to examine the students' nutrition and digestion.

Fernald residents who participated in the experiments were euphemistically called members of the "Science Club." They were not told about the radiation and were rewarded for their participation with candy, according to experts who have reviewed the studies.

Benda's study is one of many such government-sponsored experiments conducted across the country during the 1940s and 1950s that have been exposed in newspaper reports in recent weeks.

The reports of Harvard scientists' involvement have triggered a University investigation and sent professors and administrators scurrying to their file cabinets to uncover documents about the tests from half a century ago.

Benda, an internationally known authority on mental deficiency and Down's syndrome, died in 1975 at the age of 76.

"The most worrisome thing is that the parents were told the people experimented on were members of a big Science Club," said Dr. Lynn M. Peterson, Director of the Division of Medical Ethics at Harvard Medical School.

Peterson said the experiments were "clearly wrong...totally wrong."

Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics Richard Wilson yesterday said, "Of those people you may argue if they haven't gotten proper permission, their human rights have been violated. But that must be considered in the context of what were the mores of the time."

Wilson, an expert on radiation dangers, called yesterday for Harvard to investigate its own records to determine the extent of involvement by Harvard scientists in experiments like the ones at Fernald.

Wilson has been lobbying the U.S. Department ofEnergy as well to release its data on the tests,and yesterday he received the portions of Benda'spublished experiments and information about asecond study performed at Fernald in which theretarded students were given radioactive ironsupplements.

In his capacity as chief physician at the stateschool, Benda also would have supervised thesecond iron supplement study.

But Wilson and more than two dozen otherradiation experts interviewed this week sayHarvard was not a main hub for the radiationexperiments of the 1940s and 1950s.

There were a few scientists, however, who, likethe late Medical School professor Shields Warren,were on the forefront of radiation experimentationon humans.

Warren, who taught pathology at the MedicalSchool, was a pioneer in the study of thebiological effects of radiation and was famous forhis work on terminally ill cancer patients.

But even Warren, the nation's leader inunderstanding how to use radiation to cure humanills, proposed studies that would expose humantest subjects to dangerously high doses ofradioactive isotopes.

Even while well aware of the dangers posed byexcessive exposure to radiation, Warren remained aproponent of high-dose radiation experimentationon humans.

In the 1950s, Warren, as part of a proposal todevelop an atomic-powered plane, considered anexperiment which would determine the radiationthreshold of humans. To develop the craft, heconsidered the possibility of using prisoners astest subjects. The Atomic Energy Commissionultimately denied the proposal on ethical grounds.

Dr. Francis X. Masse, the director ofradiation protection programs at MIT, recentlyreviewed the Fernald studies and called them "muchado about nothing."

"If the study were proposed today I have nodoubt that it would be approved," Masse said. "Theradiation was well within today's standards. Theinformed consent process would be the only thingdifferent. It wasn't in place then."

But Dr. Gilbert F. Whittemore, a formerinstructor at both Harvard and MIT, vehementlydisagrees with Masse. In an interview this week,Whittemore said scientists conducting radiationexperiments in the 1940s and 1950s were well awareof the ethical importance of a test subject'sconsent because of the publicity following theNuremberg trials after World War II.

The Nuremberg code stresses that the "voluntaryconsent of the human subject is absolutelyessential."

Masse maintained the lack of the subjects'consent would have had no effect on participationin the study.

"It would have made no difference in theparticipation in the study because in 1945 therewas a great...cry over the use of radioactivematerial. It was a great thing," Masse said.

We wouldn't think of buying a pair of shoeswithout X-raying our feet. If [the radiationlevel] was fully disclosed they would have gottenthe same participation," he said.

Masse said the studies were prompted byconcerns over the nutrition of the boys at theschool. "It was for the boy's benefit. Theirhealth was the reason for the study," he said.

The second experiment was conducted undersimilar circumstances, Masse said. "That time theywere worried about calcium. The boys were still onheavy cereal diets, which is why Quaker Oatsfunded both of the studies."

"The 1950s study was much more directly at theFernald school...They got a license to do thatstudy from the Atomic Energy Commission. The AECreviewed that proposal and that population, andapproved of that study at that time. And MIT'Sinvolvement was to assist with the measurements atthat time, and Harvard's involvement was Benda,once again."

On Warren's proposal for the atomic-poweredairplane and the radiation threshold tests onhumans, Masse said: "It wasn't approved. Iwouldn't condemn people for thinking. If youdidn't open your mind and have thoughts, wewouldn't be anywhere."

Wilson, who has been consulted by thegovernment on radiation hazard matters after theChernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents, saidthe experiments must be viewed in the context ofthe ethics of the time.

"Clearly the ethics of medical experiments havebeen changing in the last 50 years. What isregarded as adequate permission is ratherdifferent," Wilson said. "People in jails werecommonly used. That was a stable population. Youcould go back every week and they would be there.The program of the Atomic Energy Commission andfood and drug companies did this...it wasstandard."

According to a report in the Boston Herald, Dr.Robert S. Stone of the University of CaliforniaMedical School, a scientist working with Warren,proposed that he and Warren use prisoners as testsubjects for their atomic-plane project, addingthat convicts are "likely to remain in one placewhere they can be observed for a great years."

Whittemore said people in the 1940s and 1950swere generally unaware of the dangers posed byradiation. "It was an uphill battle trying toconvince people to become safe. Things thatnowadays are just a part of our culture back thenwere not," Whittemore said.

Wilson is looking for answers. He said hebelieves there is a cover-up underway at theEnergy Department and thinks it will be yearsbefore the truth about the experiments is known.

"I've gotten no information about this and I'vebeen trying. So far, every lab director [at theEnergy Department] has been told to look forexperiments where radiation might have been used.But no lab director knows what happened 30 yearsago offhand. At the bottom of someone's file is awhole lot of stuff that no one's sorted through tofind out what it all means."

"I believe in trying to find out what this isall about. And no one knows. The Department ofEnergy has done something typical of ourgovernment," Wilson said. "It's a grandstand playby the head who doesn't know beans about scienceand who says we're now releasing things that weresecret before. It's a real cover-us with givingpeople too much information so that people cannotfind the real information."

Whittemore said he too has been stymied by whathe calls the Energy Department's culture ofsecrecy."

"The Energy Department took on a military tonein terms of secrecy," he said. "Just walking intothe building was different than any other buildingin Washington. The guards look like marines, notcustodians with walkie talkies."

Dr. James Adelstein, executive directorfor academic programs at Harvard Medical School,said the use of radioactive tracers like those inthe Fernald experiments has led to many majoradvances in medical knowledge. He said theisotopes used in the experiments were a major toolof clinical investigation at the time.

Adelstein, who has reviewed the Fernaldstudies, said he thinks Benda is the only Harvardlink to the experiments.

The calcium and iron experiments were publishedin the Journal of Nutrition in 1950 and 1954.

Medical School Dean Daniel C. Tosteson '44 andVice President and General Counsel Margaret H.Marshall were both out of town yesterday and couldnot be reached for comment.Crimson File PhotoInvestigators will comb documents fromHarvard Medical School, shown above, to learn moreabout radioactivity experiments.

Wilson has been lobbying the U.S. Department ofEnergy as well to release its data on the tests,and yesterday he received the portions of Benda'spublished experiments and information about asecond study performed at Fernald in which theretarded students were given radioactive ironsupplements.

In his capacity as chief physician at the stateschool, Benda also would have supervised thesecond iron supplement study.

But Wilson and more than two dozen otherradiation experts interviewed this week sayHarvard was not a main hub for the radiationexperiments of the 1940s and 1950s.

There were a few scientists, however, who, likethe late Medical School professor Shields Warren,were on the forefront of radiation experimentationon humans.

Warren, who taught pathology at the MedicalSchool, was a pioneer in the study of thebiological effects of radiation and was famous forhis work on terminally ill cancer patients.

But even Warren, the nation's leader inunderstanding how to use radiation to cure humanills, proposed studies that would expose humantest subjects to dangerously high doses ofradioactive isotopes.

Even while well aware of the dangers posed byexcessive exposure to radiation, Warren remained aproponent of high-dose radiation experimentationon humans.

In the 1950s, Warren, as part of a proposal todevelop an atomic-powered plane, considered anexperiment which would determine the radiationthreshold of humans. To develop the craft, heconsidered the possibility of using prisoners astest subjects. The Atomic Energy Commissionultimately denied the proposal on ethical grounds.

Dr. Francis X. Masse, the director ofradiation protection programs at MIT, recentlyreviewed the Fernald studies and called them "muchado about nothing."

"If the study were proposed today I have nodoubt that it would be approved," Masse said. "Theradiation was well within today's standards. Theinformed consent process would be the only thingdifferent. It wasn't in place then."

But Dr. Gilbert F. Whittemore, a formerinstructor at both Harvard and MIT, vehementlydisagrees with Masse. In an interview this week,Whittemore said scientists conducting radiationexperiments in the 1940s and 1950s were well awareof the ethical importance of a test subject'sconsent because of the publicity following theNuremberg trials after World War II.

The Nuremberg code stresses that the "voluntaryconsent of the human subject is absolutelyessential."

Masse maintained the lack of the subjects'consent would have had no effect on participationin the study.

"It would have made no difference in theparticipation in the study because in 1945 therewas a great...cry over the use of radioactivematerial. It was a great thing," Masse said.

We wouldn't think of buying a pair of shoeswithout X-raying our feet. If [the radiationlevel] was fully disclosed they would have gottenthe same participation," he said.

Masse said the studies were prompted byconcerns over the nutrition of the boys at theschool. "It was for the boy's benefit. Theirhealth was the reason for the study," he said.

The second experiment was conducted undersimilar circumstances, Masse said. "That time theywere worried about calcium. The boys were still onheavy cereal diets, which is why Quaker Oatsfunded both of the studies."

"The 1950s study was much more directly at theFernald school...They got a license to do thatstudy from the Atomic Energy Commission. The AECreviewed that proposal and that population, andapproved of that study at that time. And MIT'Sinvolvement was to assist with the measurements atthat time, and Harvard's involvement was Benda,once again."

On Warren's proposal for the atomic-poweredairplane and the radiation threshold tests onhumans, Masse said: "It wasn't approved. Iwouldn't condemn people for thinking. If youdidn't open your mind and have thoughts, wewouldn't be anywhere."

Wilson, who has been consulted by thegovernment on radiation hazard matters after theChernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents, saidthe experiments must be viewed in the context ofthe ethics of the time.

"Clearly the ethics of medical experiments havebeen changing in the last 50 years. What isregarded as adequate permission is ratherdifferent," Wilson said. "People in jails werecommonly used. That was a stable population. Youcould go back every week and they would be there.The program of the Atomic Energy Commission andfood and drug companies did this...it wasstandard."

According to a report in the Boston Herald, Dr.Robert S. Stone of the University of CaliforniaMedical School, a scientist working with Warren,proposed that he and Warren use prisoners as testsubjects for their atomic-plane project, addingthat convicts are "likely to remain in one placewhere they can be observed for a great years."

Whittemore said people in the 1940s and 1950swere generally unaware of the dangers posed byradiation. "It was an uphill battle trying toconvince people to become safe. Things thatnowadays are just a part of our culture back thenwere not," Whittemore said.

Wilson is looking for answers. He said hebelieves there is a cover-up underway at theEnergy Department and thinks it will be yearsbefore the truth about the experiments is known.

"I've gotten no information about this and I'vebeen trying. So far, every lab director [at theEnergy Department] has been told to look forexperiments where radiation might have been used.But no lab director knows what happened 30 yearsago offhand. At the bottom of someone's file is awhole lot of stuff that no one's sorted through tofind out what it all means."

"I believe in trying to find out what this isall about. And no one knows. The Department ofEnergy has done something typical of ourgovernment," Wilson said. "It's a grandstand playby the head who doesn't know beans about scienceand who says we're now releasing things that weresecret before. It's a real cover-us with givingpeople too much information so that people cannotfind the real information."

Whittemore said he too has been stymied by whathe calls the Energy Department's culture ofsecrecy."

"The Energy Department took on a military tonein terms of secrecy," he said. "Just walking intothe building was different than any other buildingin Washington. The guards look like marines, notcustodians with walkie talkies."

Dr. James Adelstein, executive directorfor academic programs at Harvard Medical School,said the use of radioactive tracers like those inthe Fernald experiments has led to many majoradvances in medical knowledge. He said theisotopes used in the experiments were a major toolof clinical investigation at the time.

Adelstein, who has reviewed the Fernaldstudies, said he thinks Benda is the only Harvardlink to the experiments.

The calcium and iron experiments were publishedin the Journal of Nutrition in 1950 and 1954.

Medical School Dean Daniel C. Tosteson '44 andVice President and General Counsel Margaret H.Marshall were both out of town yesterday and couldnot be reached for comment.Crimson File PhotoInvestigators will comb documents fromHarvard Medical School, shown above, to learn moreabout radioactivity experiments.